Bipolar Disorder Essay Example for Free

bipolar Disorder EssayBipolar deranges which could in addition be called manic-depressive perturbation consist of belief swings that range from a psyche expressing a low of depression up to the high of aberration. People who experience depression may recover sad or worthless and may even lose interest or enjoyment in most recreational activities they previously found to be enjoying. When a persons mood swings shifts frequently such as appearing happy to appearing sad in a blink of an look it could be a sign of them having a bipolar indisposition. Bipolar trouble oneselfs affect approximately 5.7 million Ameri evoke adults, or about 2.6 percent of the United States commonwealth age 18 and older in a year, (Lenzenweger , etc., 2007). The moderate age for detecting bipolar throw out of kilters is 25, (Lane , etc., 2007). Bipolar disorders relieve oneself mevery of common misconceptions and myths. A common myth is if someone has bipolar disorder, all their moods ar a product of the fit. The truth of this myth would be that people with bipolar disorder have moods and feelings just like anybody else, and not always is their moods connected to the illness.Often family members of the people who suffer from the illness think that once a person is diagnosed with bipolar disorder, the condition cannot be stabilized, so any misspoken word or misunderstood action is blamed on the bipolar disorder. Just because a person is diagnosed with bipolar disorder does not mean that they cannot just have a bad day without the illness being to blame. In the beginning of mental illnesses it may have been pass judgment from most people that the early history of bipolar and mental disorders were not petty, but more of an ignorance, misunderstanding, and fear. There were many famous people who displayed classic symptoms of bipolar disorder, even though they were never diagnosed or treated. These historical sufferers of bipolar disorder accept people such as Virginia Woolf, Theodore Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, Leo Tolstoy, Ernest Hemmingway, and Abraham Lincoln, (Hall-Flavin, 2011). An important publication in the history of treatment of bipolar disorder was reached in 1970, when the Food and Drug Administration finally approved Lithium.Bipolar disorder has patterns of different signs and symptoms since it is divided into several subtypes with their own individual signs and symptoms depending on how everlasting(a) the diagnosis may be. Bipolar 1 disorder has symptoms of mood swings which can cause a person to experience difficulties in their job, school, or even personal relationships. Bipolar 2 disorders is less than bipolar 1. People may experience elevated moods, impulsiveness and a a couple of(prenominal) changes in their functions but, can still maintain normal daily activities. Instead of people who are diagnosed having mania at a full-blown status, they have a less severe form of mania which is hypomania. In bipolar 2, stages of d epression last longer than what the stages of hypomania last. The high and low phases of cyclothymiacs are not as severe as they may be with subtypes of bipolar disorder but, hypomania and depression can be destructive. Cyclothymic is a mild form of bipolar disorder which is also known to some people as Cyclothymic disorder.If a person is experiencing aggressive and risky behaviors, decreased need for sleep, increased sex drive, or cannonball along thoughts these can all indicate signs and symptoms of a manic phase or hypomanic phase of a bipolar disorder. The depressive phase of bipolar disorder can include signs and symptoms such as fatigue, anxiety, changes in appetite, chronic pain without a known cause, and irritability. General symptoms and signs of all types of bipolar disorder are changes in mood during seasons, fast cycling bipolar disorder, and psychosis. A significant function in bipolar disorder and other mood disorders is an imbalance of natural brain chemicals called neurotransmitters. There are several of these neurotransmitters, but those who are most significant to bipolar disorder are monoamines serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine.A persons mood, anxiety, emotions and cravings is regulated by the serotonin neurotransmitter. Unstable moods, insomnia and overeating can be caused by low levels of serotonin. Epinephrine is a neurotransmitter that is responsible for regulating metabolism and mental awareness. A persons behaviors and addictions are affected by the neurotransmitter called dopamine by a person having low levels of dopamine could cause a person with a bipolar disorder to experience addictive behaviors. Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) is a neurotransmitter that soothes the brain and encourages sleep when a person with a bipolar disorder has low levels of GABA it can create anxiety, depression, alcoholism and tremors (Mayo Clinic, 2011).A person must meet the text book criteria located in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of M ental Disorders (DSM), to be correctly diagnosed with bipolar disorder. This is a manual published by the American psychiatric Association and is utilized to diagnose mental conditions by mental health providers. Insurance companies may also use the manual to reimburse for treatments. Diagnoses are based on the specific type of bipolar disorder that a person may be experiencing. A large amount of people would love for there to be a specific test performed to know if a person has a bipolar disorder. It would be convenient if a person could just supply a blood sample and the results give you a correct diagnosis of bipolar disorder however, it is not that easy there is no precise physical test for bipolar disorder.A company called Psynomics offers a bipolar disorder test which is a saliva-based kit that they say can determine whether you physically have two genetic alterations that are found to be connected with bipolar disorder. However, there is hardly a true bipolar disorder test t his test is only beneficial by telling you whether you have additional reasons to attempt additional psychiatric testing to receive an accurate diagnosis. However, there is research in progress that may someday lead to a more congenital bipolar disorder test. Research is being performed at the Indiana School of Medicine to identify active genes in blood samples associated not just with mood disorders, but with high and low moods. Researchers were successful through performed research in predicting high moods 85% of the time and low moods 77% of the time (Hirschfeld, 2008).Treatments of bipolar disorder are often performed by a team of professionals which may include a psychiatrist, who is trained to diagnose psychiatric illness and also to rank any needed medications. Bipolar disorder also can be treated by a psychologist who is trained in making diagnosis, usually does not prescribe medications, but is trained to give certain kinds of verbal therapies, which check outms to work well for bipolar patients and then in many cases, bipolar patients may also see someone else who can provide therapy just by verbal communication. This is really an illness where very often theres a team approach from various aesculapian professionals to treating the illness (Hall-Flavin, 2011).A person who is diagnosed with bipolar disorder treatments and episodes can be majorly affected by their environment. If a person who suffers from bipolar disorder is in a stressful environment then it can cause them to have more frequent episodes. It is vital for a person that is being treated for bipolar disorders to go forward in calm and peaceful environments so that the treatments will be successful and beneficial. Psychiatrists and research believe treatment has shown improvements over the past decade. Several effective novel drugs for maintaining mania are now available that can be used instead of only lithium. Professor Young explains Newer antipsychotic drugs can control mania qu ickly without so many of the unwelcome side effects associated with older drugs (Young, 2006, p. 23).ReferencesBipolar disorder. National Institute of Mental Health. http//www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder/ Retrieved onFebruary 20, 2013.Hall-Flavin DK (expert opinion). Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn. Nov. 8, 2011. Hirschfeld RM. Psychiatric Management, from Guideline Watch Practice Guideline for theTreatment of Patients with Bipolar Disorder, 2nd Edition. http//www.psychiatryonline.com/ Retrieved on February 20, 2013. Lenzenwenger, M.F., Lane, M.C., Loranger, A.W., Kessler, R.C. (2007). DSM-IV personalitydisorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Biological Psychiatry, 62(6), 553-564. Young A. Bipolar Disorder the Four Dimensions of Care. 7th International Review of BipolarDisorders. Abstract book p.23Zelman, M., Tompary, E., Raymond, J., Holdaway, P., Mulvihill, M. (2010). Human diseases A systemic approach (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ Pearso n.

Cat on a Hot Tin Roof Essay Example for Free

Cat on a Hot Tin Roof EssayThe character Margaret is matrimonial to Brick, the son of Big Daddy. They live together in Big Daddys house, along with his wife, Big Mama. We, as readers learn a lot about her character from the vogue she speaks, by what is said about her and by the stage directions. We in addition gain a good insight into her births with the people around her.Margarets relationship with Brick comes across as quite bizarre. His lack of interest in what she has to say gives the impression that he doesnt care and also shows a slight lack of respect. For example, when Brick replies to Maggies primary line in the play, he says Whad you say, Maggie? The stage directions prior to his response read A tone of politely feigned interest, masking indifference or worse. Other stage directions describing his post to Maggies statements serving the same negativity such as Without interest., Wryly, Absent mindedly, Dreamily, followed by sarcastic comments.We also get the impr ession that Brick doesnt find his wife as winsome as other men do. On rascal twenty-one, Maggie says Way he always drops his eyes down my body when Im talkin to him, drops his eyes to my boobs an licks his old chops The fact that shes coitus her husband how other men show interest in her comes across as a subtle hint to her husband that perhaps he should apprize her more. Almost reassuring herself, as well as him that shes an attractive wo valet. Bricks response however doesnt seem like the reply she was looking for. He describes her talk as disgusting. Theres also a sense of insecurity on Maggies front. When she catches Brick staring at her, she asks him continuously what hes thinking when he stares at her like that. On page twenty-five, Maggie says I wish you would lose your looks This is a particular strange request to make of ones partner. It makes readers assume she doesnt want to be attracted to Brick any longer. This assumption is soon backed up with further lines on page twenty-eight when the couple talk of the conditions Maggie has to follow in order for Brick to continue living with her. They also refer to their bedroom as a cage, giving the sense of entrapment.Margarets relationship with Mae seems strained and false. Maggies continuous insulting of Maes children gives the impression that they dont get along particularly well. The topic of children in Maggie and Bricks relationship also seems awkward. Mae seems to take a patronising tone with Margaret on page twenty-nine when she says Maggie, honey, if you had children of your own youd know how funny that is It seems that Mae is well aware of Maggies envy towards her for having children and likes to bring it up from time to time.Margaret often refers to Big Daddy when shes attempting to make Brick jealous. When she was talking of the man who was looking her up and down, she was talking of Big Daddy, Bricks father. She uses him as an example of a man who gives her attention to try and get Brick to do the same. She also talks of Big Daddy not getting along with Gooper, Bricks brother or Mae. On page twenty, she says Big Daddy dotes on you honey. And he cant stand Brother Man and Brother Mans wife Big Daddy is also supposed to be dying of cancer, therefore theres a lot of talk of who will be getting the large share of his will.Margaret is obviously very aware of her sexuality. On the first page of the play, a stage direction says She steps out of her dress, stands in a slip of ivory satin lace. She also cares a lot about her show and what Brick thinks of her. I feel this because of her asking Brick what he thinks of her when he looks at her and because of stage directions such as She adjusts the angle of a magnifying mirror to straighten an eyelash Her relationship with her husband seems one sided and cruel. It seems as thought she wants children and a happy marriage like her sister in law however its made obvious that Brick doesnt share the same passion. We know from the con tinuous talk of Big Daddys will that she has dreams of being rich. So far, Williams has made Maggie seem like a desperate, hurt character that covers her cark up with her loud personality.

Effect of CSR on Child Labour

Effect of CSR on electric shaver LabourAbstract tike push back is an issue that is detrimental to sustainable knowledge of any society. The down the stairslying agent of sm exclusively fry aim has been identified as privation. The hot chocolate firmament where this practice has been reported to be widespread is the backb whizz of approximately economies in West Africa. Chocolate and another(prenominal) coffee based products atomic number 18 in high demand and so consumers and manufacturers alike atomic number 18 implicated in fuelling this trade.Corporate Social Responsibility is an important tool which if accomplished and monitored properly could ultimately lead to the elimination of nipper working class. This dissertation explores how industry with the support of the brasss is amiable in programmes and projects as component of their CSR strategy in tackling child labour.Chapter OneWe are the worlds children. We are victims of exploitation and abuse. We are st reet children. We are the victims and orphans of HIV/AIDS. We are denied good feature education and health care. We are victims of political, sparing, cultural, religious and environmental discrimination. We are children whose voices are non being heard it is magazine we are taken into account. We want a world fit for children, because a world fit for us is a world fit for everyone.(Statement from the sisterrens meeting place to the United Nations, May 2002).Introduction1.1 DefinitionsA The definition of child labour as derived from the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the child (CRC) stipulates that children should be nurtureed from economic exploitation and any work that is hazardous, interferes with schooling, or is harmful to their health and development. The multinational Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) defines it as as work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential and their dignity, and that is harmful to physical and men tal development. The International Labour disposal (ILO) Convention 138, token(prenominal) age convention in 1973 which sets the minimum age for admission into employment and ILO Convention182 on the worst forms of child labour refers to child labour as all work that is harmful and hazardous to a childs health, safety and development taking into account the age of the child, the conditions under which the work takes place, and the condemnation at which the work is done. The United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF) defines child labour as work that exceeds a minimum number of hours, depending on the age of a child and on the type of work.B According to the International Cocoa Organisation (ICCO), Cocoa Certification is the process of certifying that the commodity has passed the performance/quality assurance tests/qualification requirements stipulated in the regulations/codeit complies with a set of regulations governing quality and minimum performance requirementsproduct certified may be endorsed with a quality post or display a certification markit involves auditing, accredited certifying bodies, standards organisation, independent verification bodies and transactions costs.C The Fairtrade Labelling Organisation defines fair-trade as a trading partnership based on dialogue, transparency and respect that seeks great equity in International trade1.2 Background InformationThe successful elimination of child labour in the world is almost certainly one of the most vital policy objectives of today. It is at the forefront of the objectives of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) as adopted by all 198 United Nations Member States in kinsfolk 2000 (Grimsrud, 2003). As part of broader efforts towards a sustainable solution to child labour, the ILO, UNICEF and the World Bank initiated the interagency Understanding Childrens Work (UCW) project in December 2000. This project, which is channelize by the Oslo Agenda for Action unanimously adopted at the 1997 Internat ional Conference on Child labour, elaborated the priorities for the international community in the war a accessionst child labour. Through a variety of data collection, research, and assessment activities, the UCW project is mostly directed towards improving understanding of child labour, its causes and effects, how it can be measured and effective policies coupled with stronger international cooperation for the elimination of the practice.The issue of the worst forms of child labour in the umber sector came into the public glare when a UK media ne bothrk, Channel 4, in a documentary in September 2000 alleged the massive use of children as the labour force on Ivorian cocoa plantations. The linchpin of plantation work is backbreaking labour, done using rudimentary tools under gruelling conditions. At the time it was alleged that 90% of cocoa farms in Cte dIvoire, which is the worlds leading cocoa producer engaged child labour in their operations. The government of Cte dIvoire strong ly refuted these allegations at the time plainly even outtually admitted in that location was a problem in the use of child labour but not to the magnitude as alleged in the documentary (Afro News, September 2000).In 2001, following the allegations of child labour in cocoa farms, U.S. Representative Eliot Engel and Senator Tom Harkin decided to adjoin a clause to the mint and Development Act (TDA) proposing a federal system to certify and label chocolate products as slave free. The cocoa industry successfully lobbied against this on the assumption that the egress chain was too complex. A compromise was eventually reached. A protocol entitled Protocol for the growing and processing of cocoa beans and their derivative products in a manner that complies with ILO Convention 182 concerning the prohibition and immediate action for the elimination of the worst forms of child labor, signed in September, 2001. Industry agreed to establish a task force made up of government, non-govern mental organisations to work towards its elimination in cocoa plantations. A critical part of this agreement was the commitment to design and implement standards of public certification in all of West Africa by July 1st 2005. All cocoa from this area would be certified as free from child labour. The governments would to a fault be required by the protocol to establish monitoring systems and also issue certificates which describe the current state of child labour and force labour in the cocoa sub-sector and efforts being busy to improve on the situation where necessary.Given the competing interests and values involved, child labour cannot be eradicated solely by domestic regulatory mechanisms and actions (Garcia and Jun, 2005). The inclusion of social responsibleness and in particular voidance of child labour in collective strategies became inevitable for chocolate manufacturers to avoid the wrath of the public. A greater commitment to social responsibility on the part of corpo rations has been one solution ordain forth by round academics, government agencies, and development institutions to mitigate some of these negative impacts and help companies contribute much to socio-economic development in its broadest sense.Can the industry live up to its CSR commitments in congeneric to the cocoa industry? The concept of CSR is not new. Steiner Steiner (2006) trace its origins to the philanthropic work of John D. Rock uncivilizeder and Andrew Carnegie who gave away millions for social causes. The much contemporary understanding of CSR can be traced to Bowen (1954) who contestd that managers discombobulate an ethical duty to take into consideration, broader social impacts of their decisions, and those corporations who act differently should not be seen as legitimate. In the elimination of child labour, the concerns include lessen and eliminating the use of persistent toxic pesticides and fungicides, preserving the value of cocoa agro forests, improving th e social and economic status of the smallholder and labourers as sanitary as maintaining a fair expense for the commodity. These measures would ensure a sustainable production of the commodity and at same time increase household incomes and as a result reduce and eventually eliminate incidence of child labour.1.3 The dissertation seeks toHighlight the steps taken by countries involved to tackle child labourDraw help to commonwealth responses and responsiveness, to the initiatives employed by chocolate manufacturers.Elaborate on the industry response in the wake of child labour allegations within the cocoa industry.Identify CSR initiatives employed by chocolate manufacturers both individually and collectively to combat child labour.The issue of child labour has been alleged in all the five cocoa producing countries of West Africa namely Cte dIvoire, Ghana, Nigeria, Togo and Cameroon. However, due to lack of available data, this study will be limited to two countries Cte dIvoire w hich is the leading world cocoa producer and Ghana whose economy also largely depends on cocoa production and export.The first chapter has provided the background data on child labour and the purpose of this study. The remainder of the dissertation is structured as followsChapter two provides information on literature on the causes of child labour, corporate social responsibility as an essential tool to combat child labour, the link among the chocolate industry and child labour and the steps taken to eliminate the practice in the cocoa chain.Chapter three discusses the methods use in carrying out the study.Chapter four provides information on Cte dIvoire and Ghana, the two countries involved in the present study. It also outlines their contribution to the elimination of child labour.Chapter five is a case study analysis of three chocolate manufacturing companies to hold out an insight into their CSR strategies. The case study will show the commitment and the strategy employed to approach the issue of child labour.Chapter six draws upon the case study findings.The closing chapter will draw conclusions to support the hypothesis formulated in this study. Recommendations will also be formulated based on the results from the case study analysis.Chapter both2.1 Literature ReviewIntroductionIn recent years, there has been a surge of empirical work on child labour as well as literature regarding the plight of children working as child labourers in cocoa plantations in West Africa.The issue has attracted considerable policy and public attention over the last decade either due to self recognition or outcry from the public. Public interest in child labour seems to have been motivated by increased theoretical work and publicity by the press. Documentaries exposing the conditions to which the children are subjected aroused public awareness. The rise in interest could also be attributed to increased trade and globalization which have raised awareness about the pervasiv eness of child labour and elevated concerns among rich sphere residents about their role in its perpetuation (Edmonds 2007).The unease about child labour as a human rights issue and its implication for the long term growth and development finished its interaction with education is of great concern not just for individual countries but also for the international community. This practice is viewed as a threat to sustainable development in developing countries.Articles published between 2001 and 2002 in the wake of the child labour accusations highlighted the immorality of the practice. The horrors experienced by the children who are sometimes trafficked and even sold off by their families. The treatment meted out to them is inhumane even as they work under unacceptable conditions (Edwards et al, 2001). Some of the children engage in action at law that is physically damaging or even morally objectionable (Cigno 2004). It can also be said that objectionable forms of child work have a n probability cost in terms of forgone education.It can also bring immediate realise to families who in this case will be the completely means of choice. Child labour not only hampers the growth of human resources, it also reduces the individuals education achievement as well as the effect and quality of the education system thereby continuing the pauperism cycle (Rena, 2009). Udry 2003, advertize buttresses this fact by stating that the primary cost of child labour is the associated reduction in investment in the childs human capital which occurs primarily because child labour interferes with schooling.With conflicting reports on the bound of the practice, a research Child labour in the Cocoa Sector of West Africa (IITA, sniffy 2002) revealed that the figures of children working was not as high as was initially thought but that the children worked under unacceptable conditions exposed to long work hours, pesticides and other hazardous spraying agents. In addition, the Finan cial Times, (Circulation 477, 476 of August 7, 2002) and Business Respect (Issue descend 37 of August 20, 2002) agreed with the conclusions. These findings go to buttress the earlier conclusions of a meeting of the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Minister of State with representatives of Cte dIvoire, Ghana and members of the cocoa and chocolate industry. (Anti-slavery news, May 4th 2001).The successful elimination of this form of labour is one of the most urgent policy objectives of this decade (Busse et al, 2003). It has gradually developed from a matter of regional and national concern to one that would trigger International debates and global persuasion as well as policy intervention (Basu and Tzannatos (2003). Busse et al (2003) carried out an empirical study on the notion that multinationals invest in countries where the incidence of child labour is relatively high and, secondly, the concern that countries may gain an unfair comparative advantage in trade by using child labour. Th e results indicate that multinationals are highly sensitive with respect to the location of their subsidiaries and take countries with lower levels of child labour for fear of aggression from the public and international community.Causes of Child LabourPoverty is the major cause of child labour. In a landmark paper on The Economics of Child Labor published in the American Economic Review (1998), Basu and Van argue that the primary cause of child labour is parental poverty. Grootaert (1998) and Udry (2003) argue that poverty and child labour are mutually reinforcing given that children of despicable parents end up working and not attend school and the cycle of poverty continues. Kruger (2004) concludes that children only work when the family is unable to meet their basic needs and poorer children stand the greater risk of being cloistered from school during production periods.This is further accentuated by Kruger et al (2007) which states that increased parental hires and househo ld level of income are associated with lower child labour and higher(prenominal) school attendance. Household poverty is a very powerful motive of child labour and working comes at the expense of schooling because the income is essential for survival (Strulik 2008). Edmonds and Schady (2008). Basu et al (2007) provide recent discussions on the extent to which child labour is influenced by the income among poor households to show that the strong causal relationship between poverty and child labour.Increased trade and globalization might have contributed to the awareness of child labour but it could also be a reason as to why child labour is in demand. In trying to link globalization and child labour, Dinopoulous and Zhao (2006) cite Maskus (1997) two-sector specific factors model, in which child labour is modelled as a specific factor employed in the exportable sector and bounteous labour is modelled as the mobile factor. They conclude that trade liberalization raises the make of t he exportable sector and increases the demand for child labour as well as child wage.They also state that trade liberalization raises the price of unskilled-intensive goods as well as guarantees a market for goods produced using child labour and reduces the returns to education. This can clearly lead to an increase in the incidence of child labour. In analyzing the effects of trade openness in a dynamic model of child labour and debt bondage, Basu and Chau (2004) discovered that trade openness increases the short run supply of child labour but this does not affect the long run incidence of child labour.In a 2005 study carried out by Neumayer and DeSoysa in which they used both Foreign Direct Investment and trade openness to explain child labour, they concluded that countries with higher levels of trade and FDI had lower incidences of child labour. Davies and Voy (2007) finds that there is no robust effect of either FDI or International trade on child labour. Using 1995 data for 145 countries, they find that FDI is negatively correspond with child labour but when controlling per capita income, the effect disappears. Even cost benefit analysis by Nielsen (1998), Canagarajah et al (1998), show that annual Gross domestic Products (GDP) decreases by 1-2% due to the use of child labour.Why then is child labour still being utilized if it is marginally less costly than adult labour? Levison et al 1996 suggest that it might be because children are less aware of their rights and more willing to take orders without complaining. Mehra-Kerpelman (1996), further explains that in households where parents are poor this is regarded as cheap labour that makes it possible to maintain the household budget.Corporate Social ResponsibilityCSR may be defined, consistent with McWilliams and Siegel (2001), as actions on the part of a firm that appear to advance the promotion of some social good beyond the immediate interests of the firm/shareholders and beyond legal requirements. Whi le some scholars argue that CSR type programs and policies were originally adopted in the mid twentieth century to avoid criticisms of social and environmental misconduct (Gutierrez and Jones, 2005) Micklethwait and Woodridge (2005) argue that many another(prenominal) more companies are viewing CSR as a way to reduce the negative social and environmental impacts their businesses have and to maximize the positive impact of their investment, particularly in developing countries (Blowfield, 2005).There is a growing body of evidence which asserts that corporations can be profitable not only by protecting the interest of their shareholders but by also engaging in actions that will be beneficial to their stakeholders (Pohle and Hittner, 2008). Davis et al (2006) state that while CSR came into existence largely out of commitments by companies to their employees and to communities where they were located, all that has transformd in that, corporations can now be held accountable for practi ces within their supply chain.Amaeshi et al (2006) further states that CSR often makes multinationals uncomfortable as they are often challenged by the global reach of their supply chains and the possible irresponsible practices that could occur along these chains. The mere possibility of the existence of irresponsible practices puts firms under pressure to protect their brands even if it means assuming responsibilities for the practices of independent groups along their supply chain.Some studies have shown that socially responsible firms will financially outperform rival firms by attracting socially responsible consumers (Bagnoli and Watts, 2003), and will eliminate any concerns from activists and pressure groups (Baron, 2001).Well-known companies have already proven that they can differentiate their brands and reputations as well as their products and go if they take responsibility for the welfare of the societies and environment in which they operate. These companies are practic ing CSR in a manner that generates significant returns to their business. CSR, though a major cats-paw to tackle child labour could have a limited effect on eliminating child labour if codes are not specific, strictly implemented and monitored, and feature with alternative arrangements (Kolk and Tulder, 2004).In offering an institutional theory of CSR, Campbell (2007) argues that the relationship between basic economic conditions and corporate behaviour is linked by several institutional conditions public and private regulation, the presence of NGOs and other organisations that monitor corporate behaviour, institutionalized norms regarding appropriate behaviour, associative behaviour among corporations themselves, and organized dialogues among corporations and their stakeholders.It is therefore not surprising that chocolate producers are encountering extensive pressure from consumers, community groups, government, non-governmental groups and other pressure groups to engage in CSR as a means to eradicating child labour (Morrison et al, 2006). From an economic perspective, companies would be expected to engage in such activities if the perceived benefits could exceed the associated costs which in this case could be a total ostracise of their products. Some theories in CSR show that companies engage in profit-maximizing CSR based on anticipated benefits which might include reputation management (Baron, 2001), (McWilliams and Siegel, 2001). Davis et al 2006 argue that CSR (understood as actions a company takes that are not legally mandated but are intended to have a positive impact on stakeholders, broadly construed) is challenged by the changing shape of the contemporary multinational corporation.Should large firms be involved in poverty alleviation instead of simply bring to output and employment? (Hopkins 2003). The UKs Department for International Development suggests that businesses have an important role to play in the economic growth of a country which is essential to reduce world poverty. This they can achieve through and through their own policies and practices. By following socially responsible practices, the growth generated by the private sector will be more inclusive, equitable and poverty reducing (www.csr.gov.uk). CSR by its very nature is development carried out by the private sector, and it perfectly wishing the development efforts of governments and other multilateral development institutions.There is evidence to show that a firm cannot maximize value if it ignores the interest of its stakeholder (Jensen, 2001). This is further buttressed by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development publication Making Good Business Sense, Lord Holmes and Richard Watts, define Corporate Social Responsibility as the continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as of the local community and society a t large. The recent concerns of how profit should be considered in a broader context of productivity and social responsibility and how corporations can better serve both their employees and surrounding society.The European Coalition for Corporate Justice (ECCJ) at the Round Table Conference on Child Labour and Corporate Social Responsibility in May 2008 remarked that recent progress on corporate accountability has been dominated by the development of unpaid initiatives. These voluntary initiatives have not succeeded in preventing continued abuses of corporate power, because they do not provide strong enough incentives for compliance to offset the financial gains for non-compliance. They also fail to empower citizens and stakeholders to hold the companies accountable for their actions.The OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises (OECD, 2000) calls for multinationals to contribute to the effective abolition of child labour and contribute to the elimination of all forms of forced or compulsory labour. Ignoring these guidelines could lead to damage in reputation (Orlitzky et al., 2003). A good reputation enhances the value of everything an organisation does and says. A bad reputation devalues products and services and acts as a magnet that attracts further scorn (Dowling, 2001). There are a number of challenges cased by states in the implementation of the OECD guidelines, but these are surmountable by strengthening the existing implementation system of the National Contact Points. However, there are positive growing trends movement arguing for more effective regulation of corporations relating to human rights at national and international levels (Cernic 2008).Chocolate Industry Response To Tackle Child LabourA The link between chocolate and cocoa implicates the consumers in the encouragement of child labour (Raghavan et al 2001 article in the Knight Ridder Newspaper). This is further emphasized by the Ted Case Studies Number 664, 2002 which implicates the e ntire international economic community, the Ivorian government, farmers, the chocolate manufacturers and consumers who unknowingly buy chocolate in encouraging this practice (Samlanchith Chanthavong, 2002).The cocoa and chocolate industries, in conjunction with the ILO, other non-governmental organisations, the United States (US) government agencies and the affected African governments signed a voluntary and non-legislative protocol. The Harkin-Engel Protocol 2001, signed by the World Cocoa Foundation and Cocoa Manufacturers connective was aimed at developing a credible, mutually acceptable system of industry-wide global standards, along with independent monitoring and reporting, to identify and eliminate the worst forms of child labour as defined by ILO Convention 182 and certification that cocoa used or related products is void of child labour.ILO Press Release (ILO/01/32) of October 1, 2001 lauded this initiative and pledged to work in partnership with the cocoa industry to eli minate this form of labour. In 2001, with the establishment of the International Cocoa Initiative (ICI) whose main objective was to work towards responsible labour standards for cocoa growing, it was clear that the entire cocoa sector was ready to get involved and this proved their committed to the fight against child labour.A general statement by the European Cocoa Association (ECA) on 19th April 2001, affirmed it was fully committed to sustainable development in cocoa producing countries and does not tolerate practices such as slavery and child labour and that it remains fully committed to maintain pressure on the relevant authorities, and to pursue all avenues in order to eliminate such practices where they are proven to occur. In a further communiqu on August 2, 2001 the ECA was concerned about the allegations and the extent of the problem and decided to first update the information they had on the scale of the practice.B Despite general acceptance that child labour is harmful and in spite of international outcry and Accords aimed at its eradication, progress on lowering the incidence has been very slow. Child labour eradication is at the top of the docket of the millennium development goals which hopes to achieve this by 2015. Rena 2009, states that the research on child labour represents a new area of knowledge for policymakers peculiarly regarding education and poverty reduction programmes. It further states that increased opportunities and increased welfare reduces child labour. Industry enforcement can only be effective depending on the mode of enforcement. As many labour relationships are in informal settings within family enterprises, enforcement is often very difficult (Basu and Tzannatos (2003).Krueger and Donohue (2002) conclude that an economically active child is less likely to bugger off education. If income gained by the economically active child is significant for the household, then the policy makers deciding whether or not to adopt chi ld labour legislation would face important trade-offs between distorting private decisions and correcting potential inefficiencies arising from externalities.Doepke and Zilibotti (2005) discuss the introduction of laws from an historic perspective. They suggest that child labour laws can be triggered by skill-biased technological change that induces parents to choose smaller families as occurred in the U.K. in the nineteenth century. Regulations were introduced only after the factory system which was preceded by a period of rising wage inequality, and coincided with rapidly declining fertility rates. On their part, Ceroni et al (2003) present their study as a two-stage game.Firms decide on institution and households decide on education. In equalizer the presence of child labour depends on parameters related to technology, parents altruism and the diffusion of firm property. When child labour exists, it is as a result of either firms hesitancy to innovate or households unwillingnes s to educate or both. Therefore, the elimination of child labour would largely depend crucially on its underlying cause. They conclude that, in some cases, while compulsory schooling laws or an outright ban on child labour are both welfare-reducing, a subsidy to innovation is the right tool to eliminate child labour and increase welfare.Garcia and Jun (2005) consider that International trade sanctions are a logical avenue to confront child labour, by eliminating the commercial opportunities available for such goods. However, they state that it is not clear if domestic child labour sanctions would survive legal challenges under the World flip Organisation (WTO) law as currently interpreted. For international trade law to serve as a viable strategy for the elimination of the practice there must first be a clear theoretical and doctrinal case for the WTO-consistency of domestic child labour-based sanctions. Basu and Van (1998), caution against the rush to exercise a legislative ban ag ainst child labour. They argue that this should only be put in place when there is clear reason to do so especially if, it would lead to a rise in adult wages which will adequately compensate the household of the poor children. If this is done otherwise, then it will only lead them to more extreme poverty.ConclusionDespite the global initiative, the incidence of child labour shows no sign of decline as it brings immediate benefit to some families buttressing the fact that the root cause is abject poverty (Cigno, 2004). International organisations as well as national development agencies are comprehend and encouraging CSR in the hope that the private sector can play a lead role achieving developmental goals which include eradicating poverty, and developing the social nucleotide in the rural communities such as providing education and health improvements.However, in a recent report published by the International Labour Organisation in 2006, it confirms that the challenge in the figh t against child labour in the world continues to be daunting but there is evidence that a breakthrough was in the making. The report highlights that there is already evidence of encouraging reduction in child labour, especially its worst forms. The number of child labourers globally fell by 11 percent between 2002 and 2006. They are confident that with the combination of political will, resources and the right policy choices, this evil practice could definitely be put to an end.Exasperating and discouraging for developing countries is the fact that exports remain severely hampered by massive domestic support and export subsidy programs in developed countries through high tariffs and the difficulties in the implementation of the tariff-quota system (Chaudhuri and Kumar, (2005). More damaging for the cocoa export market is the adoption of Directive 2000/36/EC by the European Union which allows chocolate manufacturers to replace cocoa butter with cheaper vegetable fats. This in itself threatens the domestic food security of cocoa producing countries and undermines their export potentials (High beam Research, 2003). This position is further highlighted by a report to the European Union by LMC international on the impact of Directive 2000

Extraction of Amylase Enzyme From Yam | Experiment

Extraction of Amylase Enzyme From Yam ExperimentAmylolytic enzymes atomic number 18 widely distri plainlyed in plant tissues, e.g. in storage tissues much(prenominal) as seeds and tubers and in vegetal organs such as leaves. There exist both types of amylases in some species of plants, (E.C.3.2.1.1 1-4--D-glu locoweed glucohydrolase) and (E.C.3.2.1.2 1-4--D-glucan maltohydrolase) amylases Thoma, J.A., J.E. Sprandlin and S. Dygert, 1971. Beta-amylase (-1, 4-glucan maltohyrolase, E.C.3,2,1,2) is an exoamylase that attacks the non reducing ends of amylumes molecules, producing a-maltose and a limit dextrin as yields Thoma, J.A., J.E. Sprandlin and S. Dygert, 1971. In stiffen-enriched tissues, -amylase may convey a role in the mobilization of amylum during germination or sprouting tubers Greenwood, C.T. and E.A. Milne, 1968. Many reports have been demonstrated that -amylase has a great commercial prise in f are and beverage industries. The enzyme is useful in structural studie s of stiffen and glycogen. Marshal and Whelan Marshall, J. et al 1973 report on the removal of any contaminating -glucosidase. The applicatory interest of -amylase was concentrated on its capacity to produce maltose syrups from starch Biovin, P., 1997.. -amylase has previously been purified and characterized from assorted types of plant sources and a few of microbial stock certificate. In blueer(prenominal) plants, the molecular characterization of -amylase has been carried out on enzyme purified from the organs enriched in starch such as sweet potato tubers Balls, A.K.,1948, et al, leaves Vikso-Nelson, A., et al 1997, bulbs Dicko, M.H., et al, 2000, seeds of various cereal species such as barley Shinke, R. et al 1971, w foment Trachuk, R. et al 1966, rice Okamato, K. and T. Akazawa, 1978 and another(prenominal) higher plants such as soy bonce Gertler, A. and Y. Birk, 1965. On the other hand, much slight information is available on the purification and characterization of -a mylase from root. The present study reports the purification of -amylase from Yam (genus Dioscorea esculenta) root to a pure state along with its characterization.Amylase is an enzyme that demotes starch flock into sugar. Amylase is present in tender saliva, where it begins the chemical process of digestion. Foods that check much starch exclusively piddling sugar, such as rice and potato, try on slightly sweet as they are chewed because amylase turns some of their starch into sugar in the mouth. The pancreas also makes amylase (alpha amylase) to hydrolyse dietary starch into disaccharides and trisaccharides which are converted by other enzymes to glucose to supply the body with energy. Plants and some bacteria also produce amylase. As diastase, amylase was the first enzyme to be discovered and isolated (by Anselme Payen in 1833). Specific amylase proteins are designated by different Greek letters. All amylases are glycoside drolases and act on -1,4-glycosidic bonds. It will s tart to denature at around 60C.Amylase digests not only carbohydrates besides also dead white blood cells. For example, when you are low in amylase you are a candidate for abscesses (inflamed areas with pus but not bacteria). If you have a toothache and are universe treated with antibiotics, but it doesnt go away, chances are you have an abscess. Amylase is involved in anti-inflammatory reactions such as those cause by the lay off of histamine and similar substances. The inflammatory response usually occurs in organs which are in contact with the outside world, i.e., the lungs and skin. These include skin problems such as psoriasis, eczema, lay in and all types of herpes. Some lung problem including asthma and emphysema may require amylase plus other enzyme formulas depending on the particular ailment. There are many types of amylases, but of importance are -amylase, -amylase and glucoamylase.A diagram of an amylase molecule from human saliva.1.1 Amylase(EC 3.2.1.2) (alternate names 1,4--D-glucan maltohydrolase glycogenase saccharogen amylase) Another form of amylase, -amylase is also synthesizingd by bacteria, fungi, and plants. Working from the non-reducing end, -amylase catalyzes the hydrolysis of the second -1,4 glycosidic bond, cleaving off deuce glucose units (maltose) at a time. During the ripening of fruit, -amylase breaks starch into maltose, resulting in the sweet flavor of ripe fruit.Both -amylase and -amylase are present in seeds -amylase is present prior to germination, whereas -amylase and prot simplicitys progress once germination has begun. Cereal grain amylase is key to the production of malt. Many microbes also produce amylase to degrade extracellular starches. Animal tissues do not contain -amylase, although it may be present in microrganisms contained within the digestive tract.1.1.2 CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISMDigestion of carbohydrate begins in the mouth by the action of salivary -amylase.Only peculiar(a) digestion of carbohydrate occu rs, however, because salivary -amylase is denatured in the stomach due to the low pH. Digestion begins a wear in the blue intestine when pancreatic -amylase is secreted. Starch is broken down into maltose, isomaltose, and maltotriose by -amylase through the hydrolysis of -1-4 glycosidic bonds. These products as well as any other disaccharides that were ingested must be further digested to their respective monosaccharide units by brush frame up enzymes (maltase, isomaltase, lactase, and sucrase) before absorption. Maltose is hydrolyzed to two glucose molecules by maltase. Isomaltose is hydrolyzed to two glucose molecules by isomaltase. Lactose is hydrolyzed to wholeness molecule of glucose and genius molecule of galactose by lactase. Sucrose is hydrolyzed to integrity molecule of fructose and one molecule of glucose by sucrase. after(prenominal) absorption, glucose, galactose, and fructose are transported to the liver via the portal blood. The liver can transform galactose and fructose into glucose (Gropper et al 2005).1.1.3 REACTIONS OF BETA AMYLASEStarch + H2O in vitro breakdown of semicrystalline starch particles by beta-amylases increases significantly if they act together with glucan, water dikinase starch substrate of different sources, e.g. wheat, wheat bran, rice bran beta-amylase hydrolyzes alpha-1,4-linkage, raw starch granules from potato, wheat, rice and corn, with the granules from rice being the shell substrate, beta-amylase attacks actually slowly on the starch granules, hydrolyzes corn granules efficiently at 45C .Beta-amylase is an exo-enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of the alpha-1,4-glucosidic linkage of the substrate liberating beta-maltose from the non-reducing end, Glu-172 and Glu-367 are catalytic residues, substrate recognition mechanism, enzyme structure beta-amylase is an inverting enzyme that hydrolyzes the alpha-1,4-glucosidic linkage of the substrate liberating beta-maltose from the non-reducing end, catalytic mechanis m, Glu-172 acts as general acid, Glu-367 acts as general base catalyzes the hydrolysis of alpha-1,4-glucosidic linkages of soluble starch, and liberates beta-anomeric maltose from the nonreducing ends, exo-acting enzyme, composed of two functional bowls, a catalytic domain domains A and B, and starch-binding domain domain C, beta-amylase has three carbohydrate-binding sites out from the active site two in domain B named Site2 and Site3, one in domain C named Site1, roles of these sites in the catalytic reaction and raw starch-binding, beta-amylase barely hydrolyzes raw starch from wheat, corn, potato or sweet potato, but binds to it strongly hydrolyzes the alpha-1,4-glucosidic linkage liberating beta-maltose from the non-reducing end of substrate, enzyme/domain structure, starch binding site in domain C, catalytic mechanism starch substrate of different sources, e.g. wheat, wheat bran, rice bran starch substrate of different sources.Beta-amylase hydrolyzes alpha-1,4-linkage, raw starch granules from potato, wheat, rice and corn, with the granules from rice being the best substrate, no efficient hydrolysis of raw starch granules, very slow enzymic attack catalyzes the release of maltose from soluble starch. Malbranchea sulfureastarch substrate of different sources, e.g. wheat, wheat bran, rice bran 106.9% of the use with amylose, soluble starch, amylose and amylopectin are the closely suitable substrates, some activity against indwelling starch, exo-hydrolase that releases beta-maltose from the non-reducing end of alpha-1,4-linked poly- and oligoglucans until the first alpha-1,6-branching point along the substrate molecule is encountered, beta-amylase should be a key enzyme in starch degradation during the germination of millet seeds, enzyme activity increases during days 1-4 of germination starch substrate of different sources, e.g. wheat, wheat bran, rice bran best substrate, pure and low quality starches, maize starch, tapioca starch maltose is the maj or end product, traces of maltooligosaccharides, no glucose as product.Beta-amylase is involved in starch degradation during mango tree ripening, which is cl previous(predicate) triggered by detachment from the mother-plant starch enzyme induction upon a dust-covered shock at 4C leads to starch-dependent maltose accumulation, which might be required for protection of the photosynthetic electron transport chain, maltose influences the carbohydrate metabolism.Of the components of starch, amylopectin presents the great challenge to hydrolytic enzyme systems. This is due to residues involved in 1,6-glycosidic branch points which constitute about 4-6% of the glucose present. to the highest degree hydrolytic enzyme are specific for 1,4-glycosidic links yet the 1,6-glycosidic links must also cleaved for complete hydrolysis of amylopectin to glucose. Some of the virtually impressive recent exercises in the development of radical enzymes have concerned debranching enzymes.It is necessa ry to hydrolyse starch in a wide variety of processes which may be condensed into two basic classesProcesses in which the starch hydrolysate is to be used by microbes or man andprocesses in which it is necessary to eliminate starch.In the former processes, such as glucose syrup production, starch is usually the major component of reaction mixtures, whereas in the latter processes, such as the processing of sugar cane juice, small amounts of starch which contaminate non- loaded materials are removed. Enzymes of various types are used in these processes. Although starches from diverse plants may be utilized, corn is the worlds most abundant source and provides most of the substrate used in the planning of starch hydrolysates.There are three stages in the conversion of starchGelatinisation, involving the dissolution of the nanogram-sized starch granules to form a viscous suspensionLiquefaction, involving the partial hydrolysis of the starch, with nonessential loss in viscosity andSac charification, involving the production of glucose and maltose by further hydrolysis.Galatinisation is achieved by heating starch with water, and occurs necessarily and rude(a)ly when starchy foods are cooked. Gelatinized starch is readily liquefied by partial hydrolysis with enzymes or acids are saccharified by further acidic or enzymic hydrolysis (Chaplin,2004).USES OF AMYLASEAmylase enzyme finds use in net income making and to break down complex sugars such as starch (found in flour) into simple sugars. Yeast therefore feeds on these simple sugars and converts it into the waste products of alcohol and CO2. This imparts flavour and causes the bread to rise. While Amylase enzymes are found naturally in yeast cells, it takes time for the yeast to produce enough of these enzymes to break down significant quantities of starch in the bread. This is the reason for long fermented doughs such as sour dough. Modern bread making techniques have included amylase enzymes (often in the form of malted barley) into bread increase thereby making the bread making process faster and more(prenominal) practical for commercial use.When used as a food additive, and may be derived from swine pancreas or mould mushroom.Bacilliary amylase is also used in clothing and dishwasher detergents to fade out starches from fabrics and dishes.Workers in factories that work with amylase for any of the above uses are at increase risk of occupational asthma. 5-9% of bakers have a positive skin test, and a fourth to a third of bakers with breathing problems are hypersensitive to amylase.An subdueor of alpha-amylase called phaseolamin has been tested as a potential diet aid.Blood serum amylase may be measured for purposes of medical diagnosis. A normal concentration is in the range 21-101 breakwater/L. A higher than normal concentration may reflect one of several medical conditions, including a do ite inflammation of the pancreas, macroamylasemia, perforated peptic ulcer, and mumps. Amylas e may be measured in other body fluids, including urine and peritoneal fluid.Two amylases are common to the baking industry, alpha-amylase and beta-amylase also known as alpha-1,4-glucan glucanohydrolase and alpha-1,4-glucan maltohydrolase.Amylases convert starch into sugar the -amylase will cleave the starch randomly (the so called 1-4 bonds in the starch) while the -amylase can only chop off two sugar units at the time at the end of the starch chain. Normally there is enough -amylase present in the flour but sometimes addition of -amylase is needed. The -amylase will vitiated the starch into smaller units called dextrins and the more -amylase activity there is, the better for the -amylase because there are more extremities available. So the substrate for the -amylase is either starch or dextrins and the product is maltose.Alpha-amylase is an endoenzyme that attacks linkages within the molecular structure. It randomly cleaves starch chains at interior a-1,4-glycosidic linkages pr oducing short chains of glucose molecules or dextrins. Beta-amylase is an exoenzyme and cleaves maltose units from the non-reducing end of the starch molecule. In baffle for these enzymes to function, the starch granule must be ruptured so that the individual starch molecules are available for enzymatic action.Depending upon their origin, alpha- and beta-amylases show differences in pH and temperature optima, thermostability, and other chemical stability. They do not require co-enzymes for activity, although alpha-amylase activity is enhanced by the presence of calcium.The pH optimum for alpha-amylase is 4.5 and it is inactivated at a pH of 3.3 to 4.0. This pH dependence decreases the efficacy of this enzyme in sour doughs. Beta-amylase is active across a much broader pH range, 4.5-9.2, with a pH optimum of 5.3. Alpha-amylase is relatively thermostable up to 70C, whereas beta-amylase loses about half of its activity at this temperature. Fungal amylase is the least temperature stabl e, followed by cereal amylase, while bacterial amylase is stable at higher temperatures. New intermediate stability enzymes have been substantial that are active above the gelatinization temperature of starch (60C), but are totally inactivated at the later stages of baking (80-90C). The objective is to maximize the anti-staling effect without creating a gummy, randy product.INHIBITORS OF AMYLASE ACTIVITYAmylase inhibitors are naturally present in many plants and protect the plant from pests by not allowing the worm to break down starch and gain energy from it. Plants may contain separate protease inhibitors as well or amylase inhibitors may play a dual role and also inhibit proteases. Protein amylase inhibitors as well as non-protein amylase inhibitors exist. Amylase inhibitors may be active against a wide variety of amylases or may be specific to certain insect amylases or mammalian amylases (Franco, et al 2002).Structure of Proteinaceous Amylase InhibitorsThe determination of t he structure of a complex between porcine pancreatic amylaseand a protein amylase inhibitor isolated from bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) showed interaction between the pancreatic amylase active site and the inhibitor. Conformational changes were observed in the pancreatic amylase upon the binding of the inhibitor. The inhibitor was found to be a dimer with a disaccharide attached to one of the amino acid residues.(Bompard G., et al, 1996).Amylase Inhibitors in yam plant tuber(Shivaraj, et al,. 1979) reported that sweet potatoes do not contain amylaseinhibitors while (Rekha, et al,1999) reported the presence of amylase inhibitors in 79 ofthe 100 varieties tested. Cultivar differences as well as isolation procedure could account forthese differing results. Before performing amylase inhibitor assays, Shivaraj and othershomogenized sweet potato with water, allowed the samples to sit for 1 hour, centrifuged thesamples, smooth the supernatant, and then subjected the supernatant to heat treatm ent(80C for 10 minutes) to destroy native amylases. Rekha and others homogenized yam tuber in a sodium phosphate buff containing polyvinyl pyrrolidone and sodium chloride,stored the samples in the refrigerator, centrifuged the samples, and then performedtrichloroacetic acid precipitation to remove native amylases. Rekha and others chose to useTCA precipitation rather than the heat treatment Shivaraj found heat treatment to be ineffective at destroying all native amylase activity.YAMYam is the common name for some species in the genus Dioscorea (family Dioscoreaceae). These are deathless herbaceous vines cultivated for the consumption of their starchy tubers in Africa, Asia, Latin America and Oceania. There are many cultivars of yam. Yam (Dioscorea spp., Dioscoreaceae) is classified as monocotyledonous but is considered to be closely related to dicotyledonous plants as a second cotyledon remains undeveloped in the embryo (Lawton and Lawton, 1967). The storage organ is plausibly a swollen hypocotyl (Lawton and Lawton, 1969), but is often described as a swollen root. A number of species are grown widely in the wet tropics with D. rotundata and D. cayenensis being of most importance, followed by D. alata and D. esculenta (Akoroda, 1993). These are all of African or East Asiatic origin, with only the minor species D. trifida being of American origin (Brcher, 1989). The tubers contain about 1-3% protein on a dry weight basis (Coursey, 1995).Yam is source of carbohydrate carbohydrates are one of the three major food groups needed for proper nutrition. Amylase is the digestive enzyme needed to digest carbohydrates. Carbohydrates in food are an beta and immediate source of energy for the body. Starch refers to carbohydrates found in plants (grains). Vegetables and fruits are a source of sugar and are broken down to sugar or glucose. Carbohydrates are present in at least small quantities in most food, but the chief sources are the sugars are the sugars and the sug ars and the starches (Wright, 1993)Uses of yamFoodYams of African species must be cooked to be safely eaten, because various natural substances in raw yams can cause illness if consumed. (Excessive skin contact with uncooked yam fluids can cause the skin to itch. If this occurs, a quick cold bath will stop the itching.) Yam is consumed in various ways, but is usually boiled and eaten. This involves cutting yam into pieces, then peeling the skin, and boiling the starchy meat. This is usually consumed with palm oil (traditional way), or with other sauces. The boiled yam can also be pounded with a traditional mortar and pestle to make out a thick starchy paste known as Pounded Yam. This is also eaten with traditional stews and sauces. Another method of consumption is to sun dry the raw yam pieces. When dry, the pieces turn a dark brown color. This is then milled to create a powder known as elubo in Nigeria. The brown powder can be prepared with boiling water to create a thick brown st archy paste known as amala. This is also consumed with the topical anaesthetic stews and sauces. The most common cooking method in Western and Central Africa is cooked boiled yam. (Wikipedia 2003).In India this vegetable is also called Garadu. In central part of India people cut small slices of the vegetable, deep fry them, sprinkle lots of spices on it and eat as snacks. In southern part of India, it is eaten with fish curry and is a local favorite.(Wikipedia 2003)1.2 TYPES OF YAMDioscorea rotundata and D. cayenensisDioscorea rotunda, the white yam, and Dioscorea cayenensis, the yellow yam, are native to Africa. They are the most classical cultivated yams. In the past they were considered two separate species but most taxonomists now regard them as the same species. There are over 200 cultivated varieties between them. The Kokoro variety is important in making dried yam chips.They are orotund plants the vines can be as long as 10 to 12 meters (35 to 40 feet). The tubers most oft en weigh about 2.5 to 5kg (6 to 12 lbs) each but can weigh as much as 25kg (60 lbs). After 7 to 12 months growth the tubers are harvested. In Africa most are pounded into a paste to make the traditional dish of pounded yam (Kay 1987).Dioscorea alataA piece of cake made with Ube (water yam).Dioscorea alata, called water yam, winged yam and purple yam, was first cultivated in Southeast Asia. Although not grown in the same quantities as the African yams, it has the largest distribution world-wide of any cultivated yam, being grown in Asia, the Pacific islands, Africa, and the West Indies (Mignouna 2003). In the United States it has become an invading species in some Southern states.In the Philippines it is known as ube (or ubi) and is used as an ingredient in many sweet desserts. In Vietnam, it is called khoai m and is used mainly as an ingredient for soup. In India, it is known as ratalu or violet yam. In Hawaii it is known as uhi. Uhi was brought to Hawaii by the early Polynesian se ttlers and became a major crop in the 1800s when the tubers were sold to visiting ships as an easily stored food supply for their voyages (White 2003).Dioscorea oppositaDioscorea opposita, Chinese yam, is native to China. The Chinese yam plant is somewhat smaller than the African, with the vines about 3 meters (10 feet) long. It is tolerant to frost and can be grown in much air-conditioned conditions than other yams. It is now grown in China, Korea, and Japan.It was introduced to Europe in the 1800s when the potato crop there was falling victim to disease, and is still grown in France for the Asian food market.The tubers are harvested after about 6 months of growth. Some are eaten right after harvesting and some are used as ingredients for other dishes, including noodles, and for traditional medicines (Kay 1987).Air potatoDioscorea bulbiferaDioscorea bulbifera, the air potato, is found in both Africa and Asia, with slight differences between those found in each enthrone. It is a l arge vine, 6 meters (20 ft) or more in length. It produces tubers however the bulbils which grow at the base of its leaves are the more important food product. They are about the size of potatoes (hence the name air potato), weighing from 0.5 to 2kg (1 to 5 lbs). Some varieties can be eaten raw while some require soaking or boiling for detoxification before eating. It is not grown much commercially since the flavor of other yams is preferred by most people. However it is popular in national vegetable gardens because it produces a crop after only four months of growth and continues producing for the life of the vine, as long as two years. Also the bulbils are light-colored to harvest and cook (Kay 1987).In 1905 the air potato was introduced to Florida and has since become an invasive species in much of the state. Its rapid growth crowds out native vegetation and is very difficult to remove since it can grow back from the tubers, and new vines can grow from the bulbils even after be ing cut down or fire (Schultz 1993).Dioscorea esculentaDioscorea esculenta, the lesser yam, was one of the first yam species cultivated. It is native to Southeast Asia and is the third most commonly cultivated species there, although it is cultivated very little in other parts of the world. Its vines seldom reach more than 3 meters (10 feet) in length and the tubers are fairly small in most varieties. The tubers are eaten baked, boiled, or fried much like potatoes. Because of the small size of the tubers, mechanical cultivation is possible which, along with its easy homework and secure flavor, could help the lesser yam to become more popular in the future (Kay 1987).Dioscorea trifidaDioscorea trifida, the cush-cush yam, is native to the Guyana region of South America and is the most important cultivated New World yam. Since they originated in tropical rain forest conditions their growth cycle is less related to seasonal changes than other yams. Because of their relative ease of cu ltivation and their good flavor they are considered to have a great potential for increased production (Kay 1987).Dioscorea dumetorumDioscorea dumetorum, the bitter yam, is popular as a vegetable in parts of West Africa one reason being that their cultivation requires less labor than other yams. The wild forms are very toxic and are sometimes used to poison animals when mixed with bait. It is said that they have also been used for criminal purposes (Kay 1987).1.3 Nutritional valueYams are high in vitamin C, dietary fiber, vitamin B6, potassium, and manganese while being low in saturated fat and sodium. Vitamin C, dietary fiber and vitamin B6 may all promote good health. Furthermore, a product that is high in potassium and low in sodium is likely to produce a good potassium-sodium balance in the human body, and so protect against osteoporosis and heart disease.Yam products generally have a lower glycemic index than potato products, which means that they will provide a more sustained form of energy, and give better protection against obesity and diabetes.Aim and objectiveThe objective of this experiment is to extract the amylases mainly -amylase from yam tuber and get the enzymatic activities of the enzymes. At the end of the experiment, the amylase extracted from yam tuber can be made use of in the industries like the pharmaceutical, plastic and textile industries among others in place of barley commonly made used of. This is even favorable considering the land mass covered by yam and also large usefulness of the yam.CHAPTER cardinal2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS2.1 MATERIALSYam (Dioscoreaceae esculenta),used was from Oja Oba Market in Iwo Osun State, Ethanol, Soluble starch, 3,5-dinitrosalicylic acid, sodium hydroxide, sodium potassium tertarate, Sephadex G200 was obtained from Pharmacia fine chemicals, Uppsala, Sweden, disodium hydrogen phosphate were products of British Drug House(BDH), poole England. The distilled water was obtained from the surgical incision of Biochemistry, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile Ife.2.2 EQUIPMENTSWater incubator manufactured by Grant Instruments(Cambridge) Ltd, Weighing balance made in Switzerland, Centrifuge manufactured by microfield instruments England. Spectrophotometer.2.2 Preparation of buffer and Reagents2.2.1 preparation of 0.016 M sodium acetate buffer, pH 4.8To prepare acetate buffer for, 73.10 g of sodium acetate was dissolved in 900 ml of distilled water, 4.2 ml of acetic acid was added and then made up to 1 Litre in volumetric flask.2.2.2 Preparation of 2 N sodium hydroxideTo 8 g of sodium hydroxide pellets was dissolved in 100ml of distilled water.2.2.3 Preparation of colour reagentDinitrosalicyclic acid colour reagent, was prepared by dissolving 1.0 g of 3,5-dinitrosalicyclic acid in 50 ml of distilled water. 30.0 g sodium potassium tartrate tetrahydrate was added slowly with 20 ml of 2N sodium hydroxide. It was diluted to 100 ml with distilled water.2.2.4 Preparation of 1% starchdisposed(p) by dissolving 1.0 g of soluble starch in 100 ml of 0.016 M sodium acetate buffer pH 4.8. It was boiled to dissolve and cooled, diluted to 100ml with distilled water.2.3 MethodThe rate at which maltose is released from starch is measured by its ability to reduce 3,5-dinitrosalicylic acid according to Bernfold(1955) . One unit releases one micromole of -maltose per minutes at 25C and pH 4.8 under the specified conditions.2.3.1 Mashing and Extraction of EnzymesWith the use of mortar and pestle, 434.52 g of yam were ground and 400ml of homogenization buffer (i.e 0.016 M sodium acetate pH) was added and stirred, it was kept in a refrigerator for 1 hour with intermittent stirring at 10 minutes interval. It was then centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 10 minutes into components. Assay for protein and enzyme activity was then carried out after it has being stored in 70% of ammonium sulphate(212.4 g/L).2.3.2 refinementPurification of -amylase All enzymes purification steps were carried out at room tem perature. Enzyme Precipitation The crude extract was initially fractioned by 70% (v/v) ammonium sulphate. After centrifugation at 4000 rpm for 10 minutes, the precipitated pellets were collected and re-suspended in of cold buffer. The solution was dissolved in 0.016 M sodium acetate buffer of pH 4.8 and overlying on a Sephadex G-200 Colum (1 x 40 cm). Fractions of 5 ml were collected. The fraction was monitored for protein at 280 nM. Elution was in 0.016 M sodium acetate buffer, pH4.8.

Accounting for Individuality

Accounting for IndividualityKadejia JacksonPeppers-BatesUtilitarianism and deontology contrast on m some(prenominal) ethical principles. Utilitarianism is agent-neutral disregarding individual preferences, whereas deontology is agent-relative and takes a persons preferences into accounting system. Utilitarianism also has a broad finale to maximize well-being and utility while deontology allows moral purposes to be driven by personal concern and ones own moral principles. Utilitarianism is not agent-relative, unlike deontology, instead it is agent-neutral which causes utiles to overlook individual interest and opinion in favor of maximizing overall utility. Utilitarianism does not account for the moral individuality of mint. A utilitarian, unlike a deontologist, would rather micturate someone do something they dislike for the prospect of the good while a deontologist would allow a person to believe their own interests and account for other alternatives in the moral decision making. In this paper, I will be contrasting the opinions of utilitarianism and deontology on the patchs of finical obligations, options and constraints, topics seen in deontology, and how the deficiency of these point in utilitarianism cause it to be noticed by deontologist.In order to grasp the difference in which these two moral standards view good deal as individuals, its important to understand the basis of these theories. Starting with utilitarianism, this court values well-being or utility. The overarching goal of this approach is to lead a life where cumulated decisions be make in the effort to maximizing utility. This approach also hold individuals to be valued the same. Since no one person is valued more than another, a utilitarian could be seen to value the many over the few if doing so would accrue more utility. This particular view is criticized by deontology for not considering a persons own interest and personal values.While on the subject of deontology, its i mportant to recognize that deontology is an agent-relative approach and, unlike Utilitarianism, does recognize individual interest. Each of us is morally permitted to give special weight to our own interests, just because they atomic number 18 ours (McNaughton and Rawlings 35). A point made in deontology is that a person has special obligations or responsibilities to people they hold soused and value more than others. Deontology also gives the idea of constraints that people hold because individuals can have different moral principles that keep them from making morally impermissible decisions. A deontologist can be constrained by the principle that killing is wrong and should never be done and in a predicament where killing is a factor, the deontologist would uphold that principle. A utilitarian on the other hand would consider killing if doing so would have greater utility that not doing so. The third point in deontology involves options which allows people to not always follow through with actions that could be considered necessary or actions that maximize utility.Knowing the bases for these theories it could be understandable why deontologist would criticize utilitarianisms ability to understand individual moral differences. From the utilitarian point of view, its unnecessary to have special obligations. Take parenting for example, it would be expected that a parent would have an obligation to treat their child well because they value their child over others. For a utilitarian, treating children well should not be confined to just that one parents interest because well-being would increase if all children were treated well.Another point about special obligations is that not only does it allow one to consider those closest to them in their decision making, having special obligations is seen as having a duty to those whom a person has special relationships. Many people believe that not only are we permitted to do more for those close to us, that we are of ten required to put their interest first. We owe things to those with whom we have special relationship that we do not owe to strangers (McNaughton and Rawlings 37). So, unlike utilitarianism, deontology strongly accounts for individuals relationships with others, especially those close to them.The second point included in deontology is having constraints. These prohibitions constrain in what we may do to any person, even in pursuit of good ends (McNaughton and Rawlings 38). As mentioned before, having constraints allows a deontologist to refrain from committing any act that would not abide by their moral principles. Utilitarianism on the other hand, would commit any act with the reward of maximizing utility. The strength of constraints also vary person to person but they are still something not seen in utilitarianism because an individuals constraints arent taken into account when making utilitarian actions.The final point in deontology, options, could be considered a strong facto r that allows moral individuality of people. Options create the ability for different people to make a multitude of different decisions in any given situation because in deontology theyre given the option to do so. In Utilitarianism, the aright option is the choice you make that accrues the most good. Deontology responds, in a way, to this by giving people choices and ability to consider multiple outcomes. Then, with special obligations and constraints taken into consideration, a person is able to make a decision that fits within their parameters rather than the objective decision to benefit the masses.To reiterate, what strongly separates deontology from utilitarianism is the concepts having special obligations, options, and constraints. Deontologists criticize utilitarians for overlooking these points during moral decision making. Utilitarians dont hold special relationships in regard for their actions because, to utilitarians, decisions are not made for those who a person holds close but instead they are made in order to produce the most good. Constraints are also disregarded for utilitarians because if a decision can be made that produces the most good, then that would be the right decision for a utilitarian, even if that decision would normally be opposed by a deontologist. Lack of constraints for utilitarians is also criticized by deontologists. Since maximizing utility is the goal for utilitarianism, options are forgone and replaced by the decisions that result in the most utility. Its due to this disregard of a persons personal connections, constraints, and options, utilitarianism is criticized for not considering the moral individuality of people.Personally, its difficult to assess which of these approaches are better. Deontology is appealing because it looks at many factors before coming to a decision. When making a decision as a deontologist, a person looks at how a decision would affect not only themselves but people they hold close. They would ac tually put those people before anyone else. A deontologist would also consider their constraints and what they are willing and not willing to do in a moral conundrum.On the other hand, utilitarianism values maximizing well-being for not only ones egotism but mainly for the greater population. It seems more selfless to try to do things to help others rather than yourself when contemplating decisions. Utilitarians also are willing to do things some people may be unwilling or hesitant to do if it would have the best benefit.When contemplating the appeals of both theories, the train track dilemma comes to mind. The train track dilemma has a runaway train that, if a sell is not pulled, the train could kill five people. Yet, on the other tracks, where the train will go if the surrogate is pulled, there lies only one person. The dilemma is then, if placed in this situation, whether you should allow the train to move forward and kill the five people, or should you flip the switch and red irect it to the one person.For a utilitarian, the decision is quite simple. individuals are all price the same so saving five people would be worth more than saving one person the switch would be pulled. For a deontologist, its harder because a strong deontological constraint is against murder and to pull the switch would basically be the direct murder of a person. If a deontologist didnt pull the switch, then they would not have broken their constraint and also not directly have killed.Personally, the deontological approach to the dilemma is unappealing. Not making a choice can be seen as making a choice in itself. The deontological idea of not force the switch leads to five people dead, and in my personal opinion, five people dead is worse than one person dead. Killing may be wrong, but like a utilitarian, its better if a fewer amount of people die.Although deontology criticizes utilitarianism for lacking the acknowledgement of individual morality, by-line deontology could possi bly lead to worse consequences than following utilitarianism. This is what, in my opinion, make utilitarianism better. My decisions typically revolve around finding the best overall outcome rather than the outcome specifically tailored to my interests. Therefore, the theory that prioritizes supreme well-being seems the better of the two.Works CitedMcNaughton, David, and Piers Rawling, Deontology. Ethics in practice an anthology. 4th ed., edited by Hugh Lafollette, John Wiley Sons, 2014, pp. 35-39.

Major League Baseball Salaries and the Economic Effect Competition and

Major League Baseball Salaries and the Economic Effect Competition and the ConsumerAs long has there has been business, Management and Labor have warred against each other for a bigger piece of the pie. Major League Baseball is no different. In the early years of professional baseball the owners controlled the salaries of the period of happeners and decided where they could play and what they would be paid. The players were bound to their team by the Reserve Clause that stated, the services of a player will be reserved exclusively for that team for the coterminous season. This resulted in keeping the players salaries artificially low because the players were not allowed to offer their services to any other team. The Reserve Clause was in exercise for more than One Hundred years of baseball history. It was challenged several times but the owners had won every time, until in 1970 when the St. Louis Cardinals traded outfielder Curt Flood to the Philadelphia Phillies. Flood refused t o play for the Phillies and sued to become a free-agent. Floods nerve was in court for several years going all the way to the Supreme Court. He was neer able to play in the Major League again. While he did not win his case, he laid the groundwork for a later case that involved two pitchers, Andy Messersmith and Dave McNally who filed a grievance against the league contending that, because they didnt sign contracts with their previous teams they were free agents. The owners and the musicians Association agreed to submit to binding, impartial, arbitration in order to pay this case. On December 23, 1975 the arbitrator Peter Seitz ruled in favor of the players and the Reserve Clause was broken, and the era of free agency began in the Major Leagues. In 1976 when free agency began the average player pay was only $52 thousand dollars, but it has increased steadily ever since. By 1990 the average fee for a Major League Baseball player had risen to $589 thousand dollars. This Year base ball will start the 2001 season with an average player salary of more than $2 million, about 40 times higher than the typical wage in 1976 when free agency began. Average Major League Player Salaries 1976-2000 Year Average Increase/decrease Median1976 $52,300 --- *1977 74,000 41.49% ... ... _ap/ 19.2000 Major League Baseball Salaries USA Today. May 1, 2000. Arlington, VA.20.1999-2000 Major League Baseball Team and Player Salaries About.com. Aug 31, 2000. Chicago, IL. http//sportsbusiness.about.com/sports/sportsbusiness/depository depository library/salary/mlb/9900/ bl_teams_9900.htm21.Final 2000 Payroll Figures CNNSI.com. Nov 21, 2000. Atlanta, GA. http//sportsillustrated.cnn.com/baseball/mlb/news/2000/11/21/2000_payrolls/22.History of Highest Paid Players ESPN.com. Jan 15, 1999. Bristol, CT. http//espn.go.com/mlb/s/ml bsalary.html23.Highest Salaries CNNSI.com. Dec 11, 2000. Atlanta, GA. http//sportsillustrated.cnn.com/baseball/mlb/news/2001/10/20/highest_salaries _ap/24.Franchise Values The Hartford Courant. May 29, 2000. Hartford, CT.25.2000 MLB Team Payrolls About.com. Aug 31, 2000. Chicago, IL.http//baseball.about.com/sports/baseball/library/weekly/blteamsalaries.htm26.MLB Player Extend Collective Bargaining Agreement About.com. Aug 29, 2000. Chicago IL. http//sportsbusiness.about.com/sports/sportsbusiness/library/n/bl082900news.htm

All Quiet On The Western Front the Novel :: Erich Maria Remarque

Kantorek would sayWe stood on the threshold of lifeAnd so it would seemWe had as yet taken no rootThe struggle swept us awayFor the differents, the older work force,It is but an interruption, they are able to think beyond itWe, however, have been gripped by itAnd do not know what the polish off may beWe know onlyThat in some strange and melancholy wayWe have become a wasteWhat does war do to a man? It destroys his inner being it crushes hope it kills him. Experiencing battle leaves only the flesh of a man, for he no longer has a personality it leaves a wasteland where a vast field of humanity once was. Through the main character, Paul Baumer, the reader experiences the hardships and consequences of war. During the course of the war, Paul reflects on how the young men involved in the war have no future left for them, theyve become a lost generation. Paul feels that his generation has become a wasteland because the war has made him into a thoughtless animal, because he knew not hing before the war, and because the war has shown the cheapness of human life.Throughout the novel, Paul must face unreliable tasks. For example, in chapter nine Paul crawls through No Mans Land to gather information about enemy forces. While in No Mans Land, the enemy begins to helicon the Germans. Paul, fearing death, hides in an old shell crater and pretends to be dead. While feigning death, an enemy soldier enters the crater. Paul quickly reacts and strike at the enemy with his dagger, fatally wounding the soldier.In a later chapter, Paul explains why he reacted so quickly. War has turned all the soldiers into unthinking animals in order to flag us the weapon of instinct. This primal instinct is one of survival it is the only thing that matters during war. It allows the soldiers to remain calm in battle, it allows them to escape solitude, and aids them in survival. As in a polar expedition, every expression of life must serve only the preservation of existence, and i s absolutely focused on that Paul and the other soldiers do only what is necessary to ensure their own survival. This affects each soldier when the war is finished. When a soldier returns back to his home after the war, he is unable(p) to escape his primitive feelings of survival.